Dear Discovery Institute,
Haven't written in a while. How have you been? I've been good, but am growing intriqued by the work of Stephen C Meyer, one of your Vice Presidents. As you know, Stephen Meyer is a proponent of the "teach the controversy" approach to evolution and Intelligent Design, and also a supporter of "On Pandas and People", which we have experienced in an earlier discussion. Lets investigate his article titled "The Origin of Life and the Death of Materialism".
First, we will return to a common theme in these blogs. Does this article remain consonant with Wedge Strategy? The answer is a resounding "yes", and as the following quote seems to imply, Intelligent Design is essentially a way to promote Wedge Strategy:
"Thus, for scientific materialists at the end of the nineteenth century, the whole history of the universe and life could be told as a seamless‚ or nearly seamless, unfolding of the potentiality of matter and energy. No longer could it be held that a pre-existent mind shaped matter. Rather, modern science showed that matter shaped and created the capacities of mind (and not the reverse). God did not create "the heavens and the earth." The heavens and the earth (i.e., matter) created (via evolution) the minds that created the concept of God.
By the turn of the twentieth century, this once shockingly materialistic approach to science had become the norm. Most twentieth century scientists have assumed no limits to the explanatory power of materialistic forces. Materialistic modes of thought and assumptions have spread from physics and biology to psychology, sociology, criminology, economics, educational theory, and even theology. Thus, Whitehead would in the end attempt to reconcile science and religion by asserting that even God himself evolves.
Yet now at the end of the twentieth century after many wars and genocidal policies pursued in the name of materialistic "science-based" ideologies, the scientific picture of the world is rapidly changing. From the microcosm of the cell and the quantum world, to the macrocosm of an expanding and finely-tuned universe, the materialistic vision of nature now seems incomplete. Even in biology where Darwin's theory, perhaps more than any other, inspired the possibility of a fully materialistic world view, materialism now seems to be failing as scientists have uncovered an awe-inspiring complexity in even the simplest of living cells. Indeed, nowhere is the inadequacy of materialistic science more evident than in the contemporary discussion of how life in its very "simplest" form might have first originated." (Meyer 1996)
So, as implied by this statement, the materialistic worldview is destined to fall; for those who haven't read my other blogs, in laymen's terms, the implication here is that the very definition of science is supposed to be due to be overthrown (or at least according to Meyer's comments here). But is this truly the case? As I have shown previously, the very structures paraded as "irreducibly complex" by the Intelligent Design movement have been shown to be evolvable. Therefore, this statement by Meyer is obviously outdated, and currently inaccurate. While
most groups would give up an argument once it becomes untenable, however, Discovery Institute still holds onto the "irreducibly complex" argument. Therefore, besides the point that this constitutes an extremely poor attempt at science, it is possible to still use Meyer's 1996 statement to day as a good explanation of Discovery Institute's views, mainly because it is still an accurate representation.
Next, Meyer goes on to attempt to deny the evolvability of DNA (after discussing origin-of-life research, which is not my area of expertise). See, for example, the following quote:
"Second, in nature every amino acid has a distinct mirror image of itself, one left-handed version or L-form and one right-handed version or D-form. These mirror-image forms are called optical isomers. Functioning proteins tolerate only left-handed amino acids, yet the right-handed and left-handed isomers occurs in nature with roughly equal frequency. Taking this into consideration compounds the improbability of attaining a biologically functioning protein. The probability of attaining at random only L-amino acids in a hypothetical peptide chain 100 amino acids long is again (1/2)100 or roughly 1 chance in 10^30. The probability of building a 100 amino acid length chain at random in which all bonds are peptide bonds and all amino acids are L-form would be (1/4)100 or roughly 1 chance in 10^60(zero for all practical purposes given the time available on the early earth). " (Meyer 1996).
While to some readers, this may seem like a valid argument, it is not. In April 2001, Robert Hazen published an article titled "Life's Rocky Start", which discusses geology-based research that accounts for the left-handed bias in amino acids. In this article, Hazen shows that if mineral facies are used as a point of growth for amino acids, then biases in "handedness" will occur. One of the most "useful" minerals for a left-handed bias is Calcite. While research is still ongoing on this possibility, it shows promising results thus far.
It is also worth noting that Meyer goes on to claim that Intelligent Design is the only known explanation for the creation of "information" in organic systems. Let's see the claim, however:
"since intelligent design is the only known cause of information-rich systems, the presence of information--including the information-rich nucleotide sequences in DNA--implies an intelligent source. Scientists in many fields recognize the connection between intelligence and information and make inferences accordingly. Archaeologists assume a mind produced the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone. Evolutionary anthropologists try to demonstrate the intelligence of early hominids by arguing that certain chipped flints are too improbably specified to have been produced by natural causes. N.A.S.A.'s search for extra-terrestrial intelligence (S.E.T.I.) presupposed that information imbedded in electromagnetic signals from space would indicate an intelligent source. As yet, however, radio-astronomers have not found information-bearing signals coming from space. But closer to home, molecular biologists have identified encoded information in the cell. Consequently, a growing number of scientists now suggest that the information in DNA justifies making what probability theorist William Dembski and biochemist Michael Behe call "the design inference." (Meyer 1996).
To disprove this statement would severly undermine Meyer's credibility, and the credibility of the Discovery Institute as a whole. So, lets consider the following question: Is Intelligent Design the only explanation for the evolution of biological information? No. But don't take my word for it; let's see some of the technical literature!! First, here's an experiment showing the evolvability of information. I will quote the abstract, then link the entire article under works cited:
"How do genetic systems gain information by evolutionary processes? Answering this question precisely requires a robust, quantitative measure of information. Fortunately, 50 years ago Claude Shannon defined information as a decrease in the uncertainty of a receiver. For molecular systems, uncertainty is closely related to entropy and hence has clear connections to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. These aspects of information theory have allowed the development of a straightforward and practical method of measuring information in genetic control systems. Here this method is used to observe information gain in the binding sites for an artificial ‘protein’ in a computer simulation of evolution. The simulation begins with zero information and, as in naturally occurring genetic systems, the information measured in the fully evolved binding sites is close to that needed to locate the sites in the genome. The transition is rapid, demonstrating that information gain can occur by punctuated equilibrium. " (Schneider 2000)
There's one source showing that information is evolvable. Is this conclusion repeatable? Adami et al show that it is, in fact reproducable.
"To make a case for or against a trend in the evolution of complexity in biological evolution, complexity needs to be both rigorously defined and measurable. A recent information-theoretic (but intuitively evident) definition identifies genomic complexity with the amount of information a sequence stores about its environment. We investigate the evolution of genomic complexity in populations of digital organisms and monitor in detail the evolutionary transitions that increase complexity. We show that, because natural selection forces genomes to behave as a natural "Maxwell Demon," within a fixed environment, genomic complexity is forced to increase. " (Adami et al 2000)
Thus, the claim that Intelligent Design is the only explanation for biological complexity is proven false. Yet another blow to the coffin of Intelligent Design, and also the Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy. Let us conclude with a final quote from Meyer's 1996 article:
"Other work promises to reshape our conception, not only of living things but of our science and ourselves. If the simplest life owes its origin to an intelligent Creator, then perhaps man is not the "cosmic orphan" that twentieth century scientific materialism has taught. Perhaps then, during the twenty first century, the traditional moral and spiritual foundations of the West will find support from the very sciences that once seemed to undermine them. " (Meyer 1996)
Here we see more of Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy at work. This is a telling quote, because it shows that Intelligent Design advocates are appealing to religion as a source of legitimacy to some degree; see, for example, how the above quote attempts to show that Intelligent Design proves the validity of religion. As shown by the blogs on this site, however, Intelligent Design does not itself have scientific validity as a theory. However, ID proponents keep attempting to undermine the definition of modern science in attempt to give their "theory" scientific validity. Until they can provide compelling evidence in favor of this action, their attempts to gain scientific validity will consistently fail.
Works Cited:
Adami, C., Ofria, C., Collier, T. "Evolution of Biological Complexity". PNAS, April 25, 2000. Vol. 97, no. 9. 4463-4468. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/9/4463
Hazen, R. "Life's Rocky Start". Scientific American, April 2001.
Meyer, S.C. "The Origin of Life and the Death of Materialism". The Intercollegiate Review 31, no. 2. April 1, 1996.
http://www.discovery.org/a/98
Schneider, T. "Evolution of Biological Information" Nucleic Acids Research, 2000. Vol. 28 No 14. 2794-2799. http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/28/14/2794
Showing posts with label Biology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Biology. Show all posts
Saturday, February 16, 2008
Friday, January 11, 2008
Is there a lawyer in the house?
Dear Discovery Institute,
Today we will be looking at one of the star witnesses for the Intelligent Design movement, namely lawyer Phillip E. Johnson. With the publication of "Darwin on Trial" in 1991, Johnson instantly became a celebrity to those that would argue against evolutionary theory. Let's look at some of his works.
First, is Johnson's work consistent with the Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy? Let's let his own words speak for him. The following is from his article "Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism":
"There are no scientific points in favor of creation and there never will be any as long as naturalists control the definition of science, because creationist explanations by definition violate the fundamental commitment of science to naturalism" (Johnson 2006 p. 32).
Johnson here precisely explains why Creationism is scientifically untenable. But Intelligent Design isn't creationism...is it? Johnson seems to think so:
"All persons who affirm that "God creates" are in an important sense creationists, even if they believe that the Genesis story is a myth and that God created gradually through evolution over billions of years" (Johnson 2006 p.28).
Johnson considers anyone who accepts the presence of a Creator, for scientific purposes especially or otherwise, a Creationist. And Johnson's entire attempt within the article cited is to overthrow "Scientific Naturalism" and replace it with a Theistic mindset, which aligns beautifully with the Wedge Strategy. Johnson's statement in "Darwin on Trial" thoroughly reveals his mindset:
"Darwinist evolution is an imaginative story about who we are and where we came from, which is to say it is a creation myth" (Johnson 1993 p. 133)
Telling. Can Phillip Johnson really be ignoring all evidence in favor of evolution? Not all of it. He mainly ignores the fossil record, which we will return to later. First, lets look at one of the evidences in favor of evolution that Johnson accepts:
"The most famous piece of evidence for Darwinsism is a study of an English peppered-moth population consisting of both dark- and light-colored moths. When industrial smoke darkened the trees that were the moths' habitat, the percentage of dark moths increased, because of their relative advantage in hiding from predators. When the air pollution was reduced, the trees became lighter and more light moths survived. Both colors were present throughout, and so no new characteristics emerged, but the percentage of dark moths in the population went up and down as chagning conditions affected their relative ability to survive and produce offspring." (Johnson 2006 p. 24)
This is at least an admission that microevolution can occur. To see how microevolution and macroevolution can occur together in a population, refer to my discussion of ceratopsians in my fossil record blog.
What does Johnson have to say about fossils? Let's consider "Darwin on Trial":
[in reference to Darwinian Natural Selection] "There was a way to test the theoryby fossil evidence, however, if Darwin and his followers had wanted a test. Darwin was emphatic that the number of transitional intermediates must have been imense, even "inconceivable". Perhapse evidence of their existence was missing because in 1859 only a small part of the world's fossil beds had been searched, and because the explorers had not known what to look for. Once paneontologists accepted Darwinism as a working hypothesis, however, and explored many new fossil beds in an effort to confirm the theory, this situation ought to change. In time the fossil record could be expected to look very different, and very much more Darwinian.
The test would not be fair to the skeptics, however, unless it was also possible for the theory to fail. Imagine, for example, that belief in Darwin's theory were to sweep through the scientific world with such irresistible power that it very quickly beecame an orthodoxy. Suppose that the tide was so irrestible that even the most prestigious of scientists---Harvard's Louis Agassiz, for example---became an instant has-been for failing to join the movement. Suppose that aplentologists became so committed to the new way of thinking that fossi lstudies were published onliy hf they supported the theory, and were discarded as failures if they showed an absense of evolutionary change. As we shall see, that is what happened. Darwinism apparently passed the fossil test, but only because it was not allowed to fail." (Johnson 1993 p. 48)
First, evidence of stasis (periods of no evolutionary change) is published, as with Eldredge and Gould's work on Punctuated Equilibrium. Second, there are ways for evolution to fail the fossil record test. For example, show me a panda in the Permian, and you have disproven evolution. Third, evolution has passed the test. There are huge volumes of known transitional fossils (see my fossil record blog for just a few examples) available to paleontologists. It is when authors such as Johnson, who have no background in paleontology, brush past known fossil evidence in an attempt to support their ideas that there are problems with grasping the fact that the fossil record does indeed support evolutionary theory. See, for example, the following quote:
"The story to be tested is that a fish species developed the ability to climb out of the water and move on land, while evolving the peculiar reproductive system of amphibians and other amphibian features more or less concurrently. No specific fossil fish species has been identified as an amphibian ancestor, but there is an extinct order of fish known as the rhipidistians which Darwinists frequently describe as an "ancestral group" The rhipidistians have skeletal features resembling those of early amphibians, including bones that look like they could have evolved into legs. But according to Barbara J. Stahl's comprehensive textbook, "Vertebrate History", "None of the known fishes is thought to be directly ancestral to the earliest land vertebrates. Most of them lived after the first amphibians appeared, and those that came before show no evidence od feveloping the stout limbs and ribs othat characterized the primitive tetrapods"
In 1938, a coelacanth, an ancient fish thought to have been extinct for about seventy million years, was caught by fishermen in the Indian Ocean. Many paleontologists considered the ceolacanth to be closely related to the rhipidistians, and thus a living specimen was expected to shine light on the soft body parts of the immediate ancestors of amphibians. When the modern coelacanth was dissected, however, its internal organs showed no signs of being preadapted for a land environment and gave no indication of how it might be possible for a fish to become an amphibian. The experience suggests that a rhipidistian fish might be equally disappointing to Darwinists if its soft body parts could be examined." (Johnson 1993 p.76-77).
Johnson seems to ignore transitional fossils that prove a fish ancestry for amphibians. While Tiktaalik wasn't known in 1993, Icthyostega was! Here are the transitional forms Johnson wants (see following link)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
Kind of kills Johnson's argument. Perhaps his lack of understanding of the fossil record has clouded his judgement, or maybe he has a prior commitment to the Wedge Strategy. Either way, he aims to change the rules of science to incorporate the supernatural, a strategy I've discussed many times before. Johnson is a lawyer, and therefore good at making the most of small amounts of evidence. However, as shown by the above quote on fossils, Johnaon himself does exactly what he accuses "Darwinists" of doing, namely, warping the evidence to suit his views.
Works Cited:
Johnson, P. "Darwin on Trial". Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove. 1993
Johnson, P. "Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism". presented in Dembski's "Uncommon Dissent: Intellectuals who Find Darwinism Unconvincing". ISI Books, Washington. 2006. p. 23-40
Today we will be looking at one of the star witnesses for the Intelligent Design movement, namely lawyer Phillip E. Johnson. With the publication of "Darwin on Trial" in 1991, Johnson instantly became a celebrity to those that would argue against evolutionary theory. Let's look at some of his works.
First, is Johnson's work consistent with the Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy? Let's let his own words speak for him. The following is from his article "Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism":
"There are no scientific points in favor of creation and there never will be any as long as naturalists control the definition of science, because creationist explanations by definition violate the fundamental commitment of science to naturalism" (Johnson 2006 p. 32).
Johnson here precisely explains why Creationism is scientifically untenable. But Intelligent Design isn't creationism...is it? Johnson seems to think so:
"All persons who affirm that "God creates" are in an important sense creationists, even if they believe that the Genesis story is a myth and that God created gradually through evolution over billions of years" (Johnson 2006 p.28).
Johnson considers anyone who accepts the presence of a Creator, for scientific purposes especially or otherwise, a Creationist. And Johnson's entire attempt within the article cited is to overthrow "Scientific Naturalism" and replace it with a Theistic mindset, which aligns beautifully with the Wedge Strategy. Johnson's statement in "Darwin on Trial" thoroughly reveals his mindset:
"Darwinist evolution is an imaginative story about who we are and where we came from, which is to say it is a creation myth" (Johnson 1993 p. 133)
Telling. Can Phillip Johnson really be ignoring all evidence in favor of evolution? Not all of it. He mainly ignores the fossil record, which we will return to later. First, lets look at one of the evidences in favor of evolution that Johnson accepts:
"The most famous piece of evidence for Darwinsism is a study of an English peppered-moth population consisting of both dark- and light-colored moths. When industrial smoke darkened the trees that were the moths' habitat, the percentage of dark moths increased, because of their relative advantage in hiding from predators. When the air pollution was reduced, the trees became lighter and more light moths survived. Both colors were present throughout, and so no new characteristics emerged, but the percentage of dark moths in the population went up and down as chagning conditions affected their relative ability to survive and produce offspring." (Johnson 2006 p. 24)
This is at least an admission that microevolution can occur. To see how microevolution and macroevolution can occur together in a population, refer to my discussion of ceratopsians in my fossil record blog.
What does Johnson have to say about fossils? Let's consider "Darwin on Trial":
[in reference to Darwinian Natural Selection] "There was a way to test the theoryby fossil evidence, however, if Darwin and his followers had wanted a test. Darwin was emphatic that the number of transitional intermediates must have been imense, even "inconceivable". Perhapse evidence of their existence was missing because in 1859 only a small part of the world's fossil beds had been searched, and because the explorers had not known what to look for. Once paneontologists accepted Darwinism as a working hypothesis, however, and explored many new fossil beds in an effort to confirm the theory, this situation ought to change. In time the fossil record could be expected to look very different, and very much more Darwinian.
The test would not be fair to the skeptics, however, unless it was also possible for the theory to fail. Imagine, for example, that belief in Darwin's theory were to sweep through the scientific world with such irresistible power that it very quickly beecame an orthodoxy. Suppose that the tide was so irrestible that even the most prestigious of scientists---Harvard's Louis Agassiz, for example---became an instant has-been for failing to join the movement. Suppose that aplentologists became so committed to the new way of thinking that fossi lstudies were published onliy hf they supported the theory, and were discarded as failures if they showed an absense of evolutionary change. As we shall see, that is what happened. Darwinism apparently passed the fossil test, but only because it was not allowed to fail." (Johnson 1993 p. 48)
First, evidence of stasis (periods of no evolutionary change) is published, as with Eldredge and Gould's work on Punctuated Equilibrium. Second, there are ways for evolution to fail the fossil record test. For example, show me a panda in the Permian, and you have disproven evolution. Third, evolution has passed the test. There are huge volumes of known transitional fossils (see my fossil record blog for just a few examples) available to paleontologists. It is when authors such as Johnson, who have no background in paleontology, brush past known fossil evidence in an attempt to support their ideas that there are problems with grasping the fact that the fossil record does indeed support evolutionary theory. See, for example, the following quote:
"The story to be tested is that a fish species developed the ability to climb out of the water and move on land, while evolving the peculiar reproductive system of amphibians and other amphibian features more or less concurrently. No specific fossil fish species has been identified as an amphibian ancestor, but there is an extinct order of fish known as the rhipidistians which Darwinists frequently describe as an "ancestral group" The rhipidistians have skeletal features resembling those of early amphibians, including bones that look like they could have evolved into legs. But according to Barbara J. Stahl's comprehensive textbook, "Vertebrate History", "None of the known fishes is thought to be directly ancestral to the earliest land vertebrates. Most of them lived after the first amphibians appeared, and those that came before show no evidence od feveloping the stout limbs and ribs othat characterized the primitive tetrapods"
In 1938, a coelacanth, an ancient fish thought to have been extinct for about seventy million years, was caught by fishermen in the Indian Ocean. Many paleontologists considered the ceolacanth to be closely related to the rhipidistians, and thus a living specimen was expected to shine light on the soft body parts of the immediate ancestors of amphibians. When the modern coelacanth was dissected, however, its internal organs showed no signs of being preadapted for a land environment and gave no indication of how it might be possible for a fish to become an amphibian. The experience suggests that a rhipidistian fish might be equally disappointing to Darwinists if its soft body parts could be examined." (Johnson 1993 p.76-77).
Johnson seems to ignore transitional fossils that prove a fish ancestry for amphibians. While Tiktaalik wasn't known in 1993, Icthyostega was! Here are the transitional forms Johnson wants (see following link)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/abs/nature04639.html
Kind of kills Johnson's argument. Perhaps his lack of understanding of the fossil record has clouded his judgement, or maybe he has a prior commitment to the Wedge Strategy. Either way, he aims to change the rules of science to incorporate the supernatural, a strategy I've discussed many times before. Johnson is a lawyer, and therefore good at making the most of small amounts of evidence. However, as shown by the above quote on fossils, Johnaon himself does exactly what he accuses "Darwinists" of doing, namely, warping the evidence to suit his views.
Works Cited:
Johnson, P. "Darwin on Trial". Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove. 1993
Johnson, P. "Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism". presented in Dembski's "Uncommon Dissent: Intellectuals who Find Darwinism Unconvincing". ISI Books, Washington. 2006. p. 23-40
Thursday, January 10, 2008
Reducing the Irreducibly Complex
Dear Discovery Institute,
Today I have been thinking about the work of Michael Behe of Lehigh University. Behe's concept of irreducible complexity appears sufficient to support Design theory, until it is critically considered at least. Today we will investigate exactly why the concept of irreducible complexity is flawed, and requires more support before it is accepted as a valid scientific concept.
First, we will critically consider some of "Darwin's Black Box", considered by many to be the seminal work (along with Philip Johnson's "Darwin On Trial") on Intelligent Design. First, Behe seems to confuse the definition of evolution (the diversification of life) with that of abiogenesis (the origin of life). Lets hear it in his own words:
evolution means a process whereby life arose from non-living matter and subsequently developed entirely by natural means. (Behe 2006 p.xi).
While the natural cause explanation clause is a major part of the definition of science (Behe has that statement correct),he is obviously confused about the very definition of Darwinian evolution, the theory which his entire book attempts to debunk. That fact raises major credibility questions. However, lets give Behe the benefit of the doubt for now. Let's consider his irreducibly complex structures.
Behe's poster child for irreducible complexity is the bacterial flagellum. If this stucture can be shown to be "evolvable", then this raises major questions about the validity of irreducible complexity. NJ Matzke has done just that with his article "Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum". While I suggest reading his entire piece (cited and linked below), here is the abstract of Matzke's piece, which shows exactly why the words "irreducibly complex" fail to describe the bacterial flagellum:
"The bacterial flagellum is a complex molecular system with multiple components required for functional motility. Such systems are sometimes proposed as puzzles for evolutionary theory on the assumption that selection would have no function to act on until all components are in place. Previous work (Thornhill and Ussery, 2000, A classification of possible routes of Darwinian evolution. J Theor Biol. 203 (2), 111-116) has outlined the general pathways by which Darwinian mechanisms can produce multi-component systems. However, published attempts to explain flagellar origins suffer from vagueness and are inconsistent with recent discoveries and the constraints imposed by Brownian motion. A new model is proposed based on two major arguments. First, analysis of dispersal at low Reynolds numbers indicates that even very crude motility can be beneficial for large bacteria. Second, homologies between flagellar and nonflagellar proteins suggest ancestral systems with functions other than motility. The model consists of six major stages: export apparatus, secretion system, adhesion system, pilus, undirected motility, and taxis-enabled motility. The selectability of each stage is documented using analogies with present-day systems. Conclusions include: (1) There is a strong possibility, previously unrecognized, of further homologies between the type III export apparatus and F1F0-ATP synthetase. (2) Much of the flagellum’s complexity evolved after crude motility was in place, via internal gene duplications and subfunctionalization. (3) Only one major system-level change of function, and four minor shifts of function, need be invoked to explain the origin of the flagellum; this involves five subsystem-level cooption events. (4) The transition between each stage is bridgeable by the evolution of a single new binding site, coupling two pre-existing subsystems, followed by coevolutionary optimization of components. Therefore, like the eye contemplated by Darwin, careful analysis shows that there are no major obstacles to gradual evolution of the flagellum." (Matzke 2006).
There it is, right in Matzke's article. An allegedly "irreducibly complex" structure shown to be evolvable. Science once again trumps the Intelligent Design movement. Bad arguments in favor of supposed design do not qualify as science, especially when the "designer" in question, as well as the presence of "design" itself, remains inherently untestable.
But let's play Behe's game. The blood clotting mechanism in blood is Behe's other major "irreducible complex" structure. And as with the bacterial flagellum, it is shown to be evolvable. For example, check out the work of Kenneth Miller (a good rebuttal to Behe's blood clotting argument is available on the following site, which will not be cited because it is linked within the text: http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/Clotting.html )
On the site linked, Kenneth Miller does an absolutely beautiful job of refuting Behe's research on "irreducible complexity". It's sad that so many people have accepted Behe's concept of irreducible complexity when he has not even been able to provide an "irreducibly complex" structure that has withstood scrutiny. All of his examples have been shown to be evolvable. The argument from personal incredulity is not a valid argument to use to disprove Darwinian evolution. Strong evidence in favor of your viewpoint is provided. Behe has failed to provide this.
In conclusion, while scientists are still working to understand the exact nature of abiogenesis (the origin of life), that fact does not make Darwinian evolution false. Darwinian evolution does not attempt to explain how life arose; it only explains how it has subsequentially diversified. Those people claiming that evolutionary theory is sufficient to explain the origin of life are grasping at straws. Darwinian Natural Selection, by nature, requires reproduction to occur, which, in turn, requires life to be in existance. Darwin's black box? Not quite.
Works Cited:
Behe, MJ. "Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution". Free Press, NY. 2006. 10th Anniversary edition.
Matzke, NJ. "Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum". originally published 2003, updated 2006. http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/flagellum.html
Today I have been thinking about the work of Michael Behe of Lehigh University. Behe's concept of irreducible complexity appears sufficient to support Design theory, until it is critically considered at least. Today we will investigate exactly why the concept of irreducible complexity is flawed, and requires more support before it is accepted as a valid scientific concept.
First, we will critically consider some of "Darwin's Black Box", considered by many to be the seminal work (along with Philip Johnson's "Darwin On Trial") on Intelligent Design. First, Behe seems to confuse the definition of evolution (the diversification of life) with that of abiogenesis (the origin of life). Lets hear it in his own words:
evolution means a process whereby life arose from non-living matter and subsequently developed entirely by natural means. (Behe 2006 p.xi).
While the natural cause explanation clause is a major part of the definition of science (Behe has that statement correct),he is obviously confused about the very definition of Darwinian evolution, the theory which his entire book attempts to debunk. That fact raises major credibility questions. However, lets give Behe the benefit of the doubt for now. Let's consider his irreducibly complex structures.
Behe's poster child for irreducible complexity is the bacterial flagellum. If this stucture can be shown to be "evolvable", then this raises major questions about the validity of irreducible complexity. NJ Matzke has done just that with his article "Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum". While I suggest reading his entire piece (cited and linked below), here is the abstract of Matzke's piece, which shows exactly why the words "irreducibly complex" fail to describe the bacterial flagellum:
"The bacterial flagellum is a complex molecular system with multiple components required for functional motility. Such systems are sometimes proposed as puzzles for evolutionary theory on the assumption that selection would have no function to act on until all components are in place. Previous work (Thornhill and Ussery, 2000, A classification of possible routes of Darwinian evolution. J Theor Biol. 203 (2), 111-116) has outlined the general pathways by which Darwinian mechanisms can produce multi-component systems. However, published attempts to explain flagellar origins suffer from vagueness and are inconsistent with recent discoveries and the constraints imposed by Brownian motion. A new model is proposed based on two major arguments. First, analysis of dispersal at low Reynolds numbers indicates that even very crude motility can be beneficial for large bacteria. Second, homologies between flagellar and nonflagellar proteins suggest ancestral systems with functions other than motility. The model consists of six major stages: export apparatus, secretion system, adhesion system, pilus, undirected motility, and taxis-enabled motility. The selectability of each stage is documented using analogies with present-day systems. Conclusions include: (1) There is a strong possibility, previously unrecognized, of further homologies between the type III export apparatus and F1F0-ATP synthetase. (2) Much of the flagellum’s complexity evolved after crude motility was in place, via internal gene duplications and subfunctionalization. (3) Only one major system-level change of function, and four minor shifts of function, need be invoked to explain the origin of the flagellum; this involves five subsystem-level cooption events. (4) The transition between each stage is bridgeable by the evolution of a single new binding site, coupling two pre-existing subsystems, followed by coevolutionary optimization of components. Therefore, like the eye contemplated by Darwin, careful analysis shows that there are no major obstacles to gradual evolution of the flagellum." (Matzke 2006).
There it is, right in Matzke's article. An allegedly "irreducibly complex" structure shown to be evolvable. Science once again trumps the Intelligent Design movement. Bad arguments in favor of supposed design do not qualify as science, especially when the "designer" in question, as well as the presence of "design" itself, remains inherently untestable.
But let's play Behe's game. The blood clotting mechanism in blood is Behe's other major "irreducible complex" structure. And as with the bacterial flagellum, it is shown to be evolvable. For example, check out the work of Kenneth Miller (a good rebuttal to Behe's blood clotting argument is available on the following site, which will not be cited because it is linked within the text: http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/Clotting.html )
On the site linked, Kenneth Miller does an absolutely beautiful job of refuting Behe's research on "irreducible complexity". It's sad that so many people have accepted Behe's concept of irreducible complexity when he has not even been able to provide an "irreducibly complex" structure that has withstood scrutiny. All of his examples have been shown to be evolvable. The argument from personal incredulity is not a valid argument to use to disprove Darwinian evolution. Strong evidence in favor of your viewpoint is provided. Behe has failed to provide this.
In conclusion, while scientists are still working to understand the exact nature of abiogenesis (the origin of life), that fact does not make Darwinian evolution false. Darwinian evolution does not attempt to explain how life arose; it only explains how it has subsequentially diversified. Those people claiming that evolutionary theory is sufficient to explain the origin of life are grasping at straws. Darwinian Natural Selection, by nature, requires reproduction to occur, which, in turn, requires life to be in existance. Darwin's black box? Not quite.
Works Cited:
Behe, MJ. "Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution". Free Press, NY. 2006. 10th Anniversary edition.
Matzke, NJ. "Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum". originally published 2003, updated 2006. http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/flagellum.html
Wednesday, January 9, 2008
The strange case of Dr. Discovery and Mr. Hide
Dear Discovery Institute,
How are you today? I am doing quite well, thank you for asking. You may perhaps appreciate me noting some discrepancies I've noted in books connected to your Institute, however. We'll start with William Dembski, one of the most well-known individuals connected with your institution.
In Dembski 1999, the author states the following (printed on Brockman 2006 p. 3and checked for validity in Dembski 1999):
"Any view of the sciences that leaves Christ out of the picture must be seen as fundamentally deficient...The conceptual soundness of a scientific theory cannot be maintained apart from Christ"
As shown by our previous discussions on the Wedge Document, this statement correlates perfectly with the Discovery Institute's ideals. However, apparently in order to sell Intelligent Design to the general public, Dembski states (Dembski 2004, and quoted in Brockman 2006 p. 3):
"Intelligent Design is not an evangelic Christian thing, or a generally Christian thing or even a generally theistic thing...Intelligent design is an emerging scientific research program. Design theorists attempt to demonstrate its merits fair and square in the scientific world---without appealing to religious authority"
Both statements have been made by the same author. Which is correct? Perhaps we should examine "Of Pandas and People", an old ID textbook, for answers? Lets start with a quote from the book defining Intelligent Design:
"Evolutionists object to the view of intelligent design because it does not give a natural cause explanation of how the various forms of life started in the first place. Intelligent design means that various forms of life began abruptly through an intelligent agency, with their distinctive features already intact---fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc." (Davis and Kenyon 1989 p. 99-100)
Is it just me, or does this definition of Intelligent Design reek of Creationist theory? Perhaps this resemblance is because the book was originally a Creationist book titled "Creation Biology" (Shermer 2006 p. 102-3, Humes 2007 p. 285). It is also telling that Stephen Meyer, of the Discovery Institute, has affiliated himself with the book by publishing a "Note to teachers" within its pages, especially in the 1993 edition (www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/indexphp?commonand=view&ID=1671
see for web posting of this note).
In today's discussion, as inspired by the conflicting claims of William Dembski, we've seen evidence of "Pandas"' Creationist ancestry, conflicting claims by William Dembski (both supporting and suppressing Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy), and even the support of "Pandas" by some of Discovery Institute's own. My dear friends at the Discovery Institute, for the sake of ID's survival as a science, please step away from the Wedge Strategy and stop contradicting yourselves so that it will one day be possible to give credibility to your researchers.
Works Cited:
Brockman, J. "Intelligent Thought: Science Versus the Intelligent Design Movement". 2006
Davis, P. and Kenyon, D. "Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins". 1989
Dembski, W. "Intelligent Design: the Bridge Between Science & Theology. 1999
Dembski, W. "The Design Revolution". 2004
Humes, E. "Monkey Girl: Evolution, Education, Religion, and the Battle for America's Soul". 2007
Shermer, M. "Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design". 2006
How are you today? I am doing quite well, thank you for asking. You may perhaps appreciate me noting some discrepancies I've noted in books connected to your Institute, however. We'll start with William Dembski, one of the most well-known individuals connected with your institution.
In Dembski 1999, the author states the following (printed on Brockman 2006 p. 3and checked for validity in Dembski 1999):
"Any view of the sciences that leaves Christ out of the picture must be seen as fundamentally deficient...The conceptual soundness of a scientific theory cannot be maintained apart from Christ"
As shown by our previous discussions on the Wedge Document, this statement correlates perfectly with the Discovery Institute's ideals. However, apparently in order to sell Intelligent Design to the general public, Dembski states (Dembski 2004, and quoted in Brockman 2006 p. 3):
"Intelligent Design is not an evangelic Christian thing, or a generally Christian thing or even a generally theistic thing...Intelligent design is an emerging scientific research program. Design theorists attempt to demonstrate its merits fair and square in the scientific world---without appealing to religious authority"
Both statements have been made by the same author. Which is correct? Perhaps we should examine "Of Pandas and People", an old ID textbook, for answers? Lets start with a quote from the book defining Intelligent Design:
"Evolutionists object to the view of intelligent design because it does not give a natural cause explanation of how the various forms of life started in the first place. Intelligent design means that various forms of life began abruptly through an intelligent agency, with their distinctive features already intact---fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc." (Davis and Kenyon 1989 p. 99-100)
Is it just me, or does this definition of Intelligent Design reek of Creationist theory? Perhaps this resemblance is because the book was originally a Creationist book titled "Creation Biology" (Shermer 2006 p. 102-3, Humes 2007 p. 285). It is also telling that Stephen Meyer, of the Discovery Institute, has affiliated himself with the book by publishing a "Note to teachers" within its pages, especially in the 1993 edition (www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/indexphp?commonand=view&ID=1671
see for web posting of this note).
In today's discussion, as inspired by the conflicting claims of William Dembski, we've seen evidence of "Pandas"' Creationist ancestry, conflicting claims by William Dembski (both supporting and suppressing Discovery Institute's Wedge Strategy), and even the support of "Pandas" by some of Discovery Institute's own. My dear friends at the Discovery Institute, for the sake of ID's survival as a science, please step away from the Wedge Strategy and stop contradicting yourselves so that it will one day be possible to give credibility to your researchers.
Works Cited:
Brockman, J. "Intelligent Thought: Science Versus the Intelligent Design Movement". 2006
Davis, P. and Kenyon, D. "Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins". 1989
Dembski, W. "Intelligent Design: the Bridge Between Science & Theology. 1999
Dembski, W. "The Design Revolution". 2004
Humes, E. "Monkey Girl: Evolution, Education, Religion, and the Battle for America's Soul". 2007
Shermer, M. "Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design". 2006
Monday, January 7, 2008
Transitional fossils/fossil record
Introduction
Intelligent design is not science. This fact has never been as clear as it was on December 20th, 2005, in Dover, PA when Judge John E. Jones III declared that Intelligent Design had no place in the science curriculum in the region. In Jones’ words:
"After this searching and careful review of ID [Intelligent Design]
as espoused by its proponents, as elaborated upon in submissions
to the Court, and as scrutinized over a six-week trial, we find that ID
is not science and cannot be adjudged a valid, accepted scientific theory,
as it has failed to publish in peer-reviewed journals, engage in research
and testing, and gain acceptance in the scientific community. ID,
as noted, is grounded in theology, not science." (Brockman 2006 p.252)
The implications of this statement are obvious to anyone with a background in the debate. However, for those individuals unfamiliar with the issue, and also for those individuals desiring to understand exactly why Intelligent Design [ID hereafter] is nothing more than an unintelligently designed challenge to evolutionary theory that clings to Young Earth Creationism [YEC] even when the "Designer" of ID is never identified, an inquiry into the works of the theory’s proponents is required.
That is the intent of this essay; in an attempt to illustrate why ID is a non-scientific idea that is strongly tied to its Creationist heritage, the works of leading ID proponents and also major documents from the ID movement will be considered, and compared to YEC theory. This essay will focus mainly on the ID, YEC, and mainstream science arguments dealing with the fossil record.
Historical background
Ever since Darwin, the fossil record has been cited as one of the best sources of evidence in favor of evolutionary theory. However, many leaders of the YEC movement (Duane Gish for example) point to gaps in the fossil record as "proof" that God created "kinds" of animals that cannot be crossed by evolution; ie. evolution can occur within a "kind", but never between "kinds". What is a "created kind"? You won’t find the answer in many YEC works. However, Of Pandas and People, the textbook that the ID movement has repeatedly attempted to push into classrooms, does indeed offer a definition of a "created kind" within its definition of ID, which, ironically, also nullifies ID’s claim to be a scientific theory:
"Evolutionists object to the view of intelligent design because it does not give a natural cause explanation of how the various forms of life started in the first place. Intelligent design means that various forms of life began abruptly through an intelligent agency, with their distinctive features already intact---fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc. "[Davis and Kenyon 1989, p.99-100)
As shown by the quote above, the ID movement essentially gives up all scientific validity within its own textbook by appealing to the supernatural. In fact, during the Dover trial, Michael Behe, one of the leaders of the ID movement, acknowledged the fact that if the rules of science were changed to include ID, by definition astrology would also be considered science (Humes 2007 p. 301).
Also telling with regards to the above quote is the fact that if the term "intelligent design" were changed to "creationism", one would have no problem accepting the quote as being from a YEC publication. Perhaps this is because the book was initially a Creationist textbook initially titled Biology and Creation (Shermer 2006 p. 103). Also worth noting is that the 1989 version of Pandas is the first version of the textbook printed as an ID textbook. The book was printed in 1986 as Biology and Creation.
Anyway, back to the fossil record. The ID movement, in the above passage, appears to claim that evidence of evolution is not to be found in the fossil record. This is a commonly held misunderstanding among ID theorists. While claiming that the fossil record shows no evidence for evolution, they also reveal a major misunderstanding of the way paleontology works.
Other discussions of the fossil record by ID theorists are just as telling. The Design movement, as championed by the Discovery Institute, seems to thoroughly prefer the idea that there are gaps in the fossil record that nullify the fossil record to the idea that most paleontologists hold (the fossil record supports evolution). This is strongly evidenced in the writings of Robert C. Koons in Dembski 2004:
As is well known, the fossil record of the family tree of evolution is so gappy that it consists of a great deal more gap than tree…[Dembski here attests to problems in the invertebrate fossil record]…The missing links that have been found, like the Archaeopteryx or Australopithecus, are better described as mosaics: recombinations of adaptations found in what are assumed to be related families. (Koons in Dembski 2004 p.4)
This blog deals with evolutionary evidences present in vertebrates. The organisms involved are much more well-known to the public than invertebrates are, so it makes sense to consider vertebrates here. Invertebrates will be considered later in these blogs. While Archaeopteryx is called a "mosaic" by Koons, as well as by other Design theorists, it is worth noting that this "mosaic" showcases exactly what one would expect in a transitional form. This idea will be discussed below.
Archaeopteryx
Let us consider the case of Archaeopteryx. While heralded as a perfect transitional form by paleontologists and biologists for more than a century (Thomas Henry Huxley, "Darwin’s Bulldog", used Archaeopteryx and some bird-like dinosaurs such as Compsagnathus to theorize that birds evolved from dinosaurs. This idea was forgotten for decades after his death until it was revived strongly by Bakker and Ostrom in the late 1960’s), the Creationist movement immediately began to call Archaeopteryx "just" a bird, and not a transitional fossil. Indeed, Duane Gish continues with that line of argument even today.
While the classification of Archaeopteryx as "just" a bird is likely partially a product of the Linnaean system (there is no classification for a transitional form between birds and dinosaurs under the Linnaean system, so it is classified as a bird because it is more bird-like than dinosaur-like), it is still used today as an argument against evolution. Jonathan Wells of the Discovery Institute (the main proponent group of ID theory) is militantly against the classification of Archaeopteryx as a transitional form, as shown in his book Icons of Evolution, Science or Myth?: Why Much of What we Teach About Evolution is Wrong. Wells essentially argues that since Archaeopteryx cannot be shown to be an ancestor of modern birds, it does not qualify as a transitional form.
This shows a major misunderstanding of paleontology research, and the classification of a transitional form. Archaeopteryx is a transitional form because it shows both bird-like (feathers, wings, etc) and dinosaurian (teeth, bony tail, etc) features. In fact, until the first feathered specimen of Archaeopteryx was found, the known specimens of Archaeopteryx were instead classified as specimens of the genus Compsagnathus, which was a small bipedal Theropod dinosaur.
However, as conclusive as the evidence in favor of Archaeopteryx being a transitional form is, other ID theorists also misunderstand the basis on which Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form. This list includes lawyer Phillip Johnson, who is often credited with beginning the ID movement. While Johnson may be brilliant as a lawyer, he is not qualified to discuss paleontology, as shown by the following passage:
"Archaeopteryx is an impressive mosaic. The question is whether it is proof of a reptile (dinosaur) to bird transition, or whether it is just one of those odd variants, like the contemporary duck-billed platypus, that have features resembling those of another class but are not transitional intermediates in the Darwinian sense. "(Johnson 1993 p. 80)
This passage shows a major misunderstanding as to why Archaeopteryx is considered to be a "transitional intermediate in the Darwinian sense". Archaeopteryx is not considered to show dinosaurian paternity for the avian class merely because it has a few dinosaur-like features. Rather, the fact that the skeleton of Archaeopteryx is similar enough to the Theropod body plan to be mistaken as a small Theropod (Compsagnathus) until feathered specimens were found is why Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form. The hips, teeth, claws, shoulders, and skeleton as a whole of Archaeopteryx is essentially dinosaurian. This is why Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form, not because of some minor similarities, but rather due to major irrefutable physical similarities between birds and dinosaurs shown in Archaeopteryx. See the National Center for Science Education article cited for an in-depth explanation of Wells’ claims on Archaeopteryx and also the rest of his book.
Dinosaur transitional phases
It is worth noting at this point, while both some ID theorists and also the YEC movement claim that macroevolution is not visible through the fossil record, it is perhaps most visible through some dinosaurian lineages. See for example Ceratopsian dinosaurs. The beautiful thing about the Ceratopsian dinosaurs is the fact that within this group there is present both macroevolution and microevolution, and evidence of both is present. For microevolution, just look at the sacrums of the lineage. It soon becomes obvious that this lineage showcases a trend towards robustness as the Ceratopsians evolve from a bipedal ancestral stock (Psittacosaurus) into a hefty quadruped (Triceratops). The change in habit from biped to quadruped, as well as the appearance of horns through the lineage, seemingly out of nowhere, is proof of macroevolution, and also proof that evolution can indeed "create" information. First, in Protoceratops paleontologists see the appearance of a frill, then in later ceratopsians paleontologists can watch (metaphorically speaking; they use fossils) horns form from regions where no horns were initially present in ancestral forms. Here we have a beautiful example of macroevolution and microevolution working in conjunction in order to form new structures and body plans.
Also worth noting is the fact that not only does Archaeopteryx show us a dinosaurian ancestry for the birds, but also that there are other feathered dinosaurs that show evidence of close relation to birds. These animals include Sinosauropteryx and Caudipteryx, both from China.
Tetrapod/early Amphibian evolution
Other transitional sequences are also present, and often ignored by ID theorists. The most commonly ignored transitional sequence is perhaps the evolution of early amphibians from Crossopterygian fish. With the recent discovery of Tiktaalik rosea, we now have an absolutely beautiful transitional sequence documenting early tetrapod evolution (see for example Shubin p. 82-91 in Brockman 2006). However, a brief survey of some of the major ID works shows yet another misunderstanding of the fossil record in reference to this transitional sequence.
First, let us again consider the 1989 edition of Pandas:
"Evolutionists believe that the first amphibians (the labyrinthodonts[italics in original]) evolved from early fish known as crossopterygians or lobe-fined fish. A very similar lobe-finned fish swims the (sic) Indian Ocean today…[brief reference to figure in book here]…If crossoperygians really did evolve into amphibians, tremendous changes must have taken place. Fins must have been transformed into forelimbs. The skull had to change from two parts to a single, solid piece. The hip bones had to enlarge and become attached to the backbone. As well as changes in the skeleton, not a few changes must have occurred in organs, muscles, and other soft tissues. For example, the air bladder of the fish had to be transformed into the lungs of the amphibian.
Though just a few of the many examples possible, these are enough to show how large the differences between early fish and amphibian really were. How many different transitional species were required to bridge the gap between them? And how many generations of each species must have been involved? Were hundreds or even thousands of species required? We have no way of knowing, but we do know that no such species are found in the fossil record." (Davis and Kenyon 1989 p. 102)
It is worth noting here that even at the time this edition of Pandas was published, there were known transitional fossils bridging the gaps noted here (also please refer to Shubin’s article in Brockman 2006, Icthyostega and tetrapod-like fish were present in the fossil record, and had been discovered. Tiktaalik only filled in yet another gap within that lineage, effectively adding even stronger support to its validity). With the edition of Tiktaalik rosea to this lineage, there is no doubt that we do indeed have a transitional line leading from fish to amphibians and tetrapods as a whole.
Whales
When confronted with the problem of the whale transitional series in The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and Intelligent Design, Jonathan Wells does accept the presence of the whale transitional lineage. However, he attempts to make their presence irrelevant by essentially claiming that since they did not "give birth to the other" that they do not count, and also by stating the following:
"It turns out that the problem with fossils is not that transitional links are missing, but that the fossil evidence in principle cannot provide evidence for descent with modification" (Wells 2006 p. 20)
However, ask almost any paleontologist and you will find out that the fossil record does, by nature, prove evolutionary theory. This passage by Wells shows a complete and total misunderstanding with regards to the fossil record. For a good discussion of the whale transitional fossils we have, check out the article "Hooking Leviathan by its Past" in Gould 1995.
Humans
The human transitional sequence is perhaps the most hotly debated transitional series known. This is perhaps due to the fact that this exact lineage directly involves our species as a whole. While many ID theorists (and all YEC theorists) deny the existence of human transitional fossils, the evidence is indeed there in favor of evolution for those who look. Since this is not my area of expertise, see for example Ch. 3 (p. 60-89) in Eldredge 1991 for both detailed yet accessible descriptions and also images, and also Tim D White’s article in Brockman 2006. For internet sources, check out the following:
http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/transitional_fossils/ note that Design advocates will not call themselves creationists and make a distinction between themselves and creation science there.
www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CC/CC200.html
another decent site. google searches will bring up a whole list of human transitional forms.
Conclusion
A brief foray into the field of vertebrate paleontology shows that the fossil record does indeed support evolutionary theory. While there is no time for more discussion in this blog, the fossil record will serve as an underlying theme of all the blogs presented in this series. As shown, many Design theorists tend to support the idea that there are gaps in the fossil record that somehow serve to disprove evolution. While some ID theorists, like Michael Behe, are open to macroevolution and accept the fossil record for what it is, most seem to misunderstand the nature of the fossil record. This is either due to a lack of expertise or a preconceived notion that for their theory to succeed fossils must be ignored. This works in conjunction with one of the Wedge Document’s major goals, namely, to "Replace materialistic explanations with the theistic understanding that nature and human beings are created by God" (Discovery Institute. "The "Wedge Document": "So What?""). This statement in itself shows why exactly Discovery Institute’s science agenda (and therefore, Intelligent Design as a "science") is flawed. Science does not allow appeals to the supernatural, and the Discovery Institute’s Center for Science and Culture expects science to eventually allow these appeals. However, science will stand its ground, and the fossil record will continue to do what it has for the past 150 years; show strong evidence of evolution itself.
Luckily for Darwin, however, the fossil record does support evolution. And unluckily for the Discover Institute, as shown by history, appeals to the supernatural are a science-stopper, and support the mindset of "God did it, no need to understand why". This is the fatal flaw of the Discovery Institute’s Wedge strategy. Science, by nature, excludes the supernatural, and will continue to do so, even if Discovery Institute plans otherwise. Read the Wedge Document (printed in Humes 2007 p. 356-7, and also the Discovery Institute’s "The "Wedge Document": "So What?"") in order to understand exactly what the "Wedge Strategy" is. It will be discussed throughout these blogs.
Works Cited
Brockman, J. Intelligent Thought: Science Versus the Intelligent Design Movement. Vintage Books. NY 2006. Trial transcript in Appendix, also Neil Shubin article p. 82-91.
Davis, P., and Kenyon, DH. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins. Haughton Publishing Company, Dallas, 1989. The "Intelligent Design" textbook supplement for biology curriculums
Dembski, W. Uncommon Dissent: Intellectuals Who Find Darwinism Unconvincing. ISI Books, Wilmington. 2004 a volume collecting writings of some of the more prominent Design theorists.
Discovery Institute. "The "Wedge Document": "So What?"". Available on www.discovery.org. this article is the Discovery Institute’s attempt to explain away the Wedge Document, and includes text of the actual document.
Eldredge, N., Fossils: The Evolution and Extinction of Species. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., NY, 1991. One of the best general guides to fossils and evolutionary theory ever published in my opinion. Outstanding images of fossils from the American Museum of Natural History accent a beautifully written book.
Gould, SJ. Dinosaur in a Haystack Three Rivers Press, NY, 1995. Article "Hooking Leviathan by its Past" on whale transitional forms present in this work
Humes, E. Monkey Girl: Evolution, Education, Religion, and the Battle for America’s Soul. HarperCollins NY, 2007. First Edition. Discussion of the recent Dover trial.
Johnson, PE. Darwin on Trial. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1993. One of the books credited with kicking off the Intelligent Design movement.
National Center for Science Education. "Icons of Evolution? Why Much of What Jonathan Wells Writes About Evolution is Wrong". www.natcenscied.org/icons.html
this page explains nicely the errors in reasoning of Well’s book Icons of Evolution.
Shermer, M. Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design. Times Books, NY, 2006. A stinging rebuttal of Intelligent Design that shows its inherent existence outside the realm of science
Wells, J. The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Regnery Publishing, Inc, Washington DC, 2006. a guide to intelligent design published by Discovery Institute. Read with caution; the work is massively biased.
Wells, J. Icons of Evolution, Science or Myth?: Why Much of What we Teach About Evolution is Wrong. Regnery Publishing, Inc, Washington DC, 2000. Wells’ first major work attempting to disprove some evidence for evolution presented in classrooms.
Intelligent design is not science. This fact has never been as clear as it was on December 20th, 2005, in Dover, PA when Judge John E. Jones III declared that Intelligent Design had no place in the science curriculum in the region. In Jones’ words:
"After this searching and careful review of ID [Intelligent Design]
as espoused by its proponents, as elaborated upon in submissions
to the Court, and as scrutinized over a six-week trial, we find that ID
is not science and cannot be adjudged a valid, accepted scientific theory,
as it has failed to publish in peer-reviewed journals, engage in research
and testing, and gain acceptance in the scientific community. ID,
as noted, is grounded in theology, not science." (Brockman 2006 p.252)
The implications of this statement are obvious to anyone with a background in the debate. However, for those individuals unfamiliar with the issue, and also for those individuals desiring to understand exactly why Intelligent Design [ID hereafter] is nothing more than an unintelligently designed challenge to evolutionary theory that clings to Young Earth Creationism [YEC] even when the "Designer" of ID is never identified, an inquiry into the works of the theory’s proponents is required.
That is the intent of this essay; in an attempt to illustrate why ID is a non-scientific idea that is strongly tied to its Creationist heritage, the works of leading ID proponents and also major documents from the ID movement will be considered, and compared to YEC theory. This essay will focus mainly on the ID, YEC, and mainstream science arguments dealing with the fossil record.
Historical background
Ever since Darwin, the fossil record has been cited as one of the best sources of evidence in favor of evolutionary theory. However, many leaders of the YEC movement (Duane Gish for example) point to gaps in the fossil record as "proof" that God created "kinds" of animals that cannot be crossed by evolution; ie. evolution can occur within a "kind", but never between "kinds". What is a "created kind"? You won’t find the answer in many YEC works. However, Of Pandas and People, the textbook that the ID movement has repeatedly attempted to push into classrooms, does indeed offer a definition of a "created kind" within its definition of ID, which, ironically, also nullifies ID’s claim to be a scientific theory:
"Evolutionists object to the view of intelligent design because it does not give a natural cause explanation of how the various forms of life started in the first place. Intelligent design means that various forms of life began abruptly through an intelligent agency, with their distinctive features already intact---fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc. "[Davis and Kenyon 1989, p.99-100)
As shown by the quote above, the ID movement essentially gives up all scientific validity within its own textbook by appealing to the supernatural. In fact, during the Dover trial, Michael Behe, one of the leaders of the ID movement, acknowledged the fact that if the rules of science were changed to include ID, by definition astrology would also be considered science (Humes 2007 p. 301).
Also telling with regards to the above quote is the fact that if the term "intelligent design" were changed to "creationism", one would have no problem accepting the quote as being from a YEC publication. Perhaps this is because the book was initially a Creationist textbook initially titled Biology and Creation (Shermer 2006 p. 103). Also worth noting is that the 1989 version of Pandas is the first version of the textbook printed as an ID textbook. The book was printed in 1986 as Biology and Creation.
Anyway, back to the fossil record. The ID movement, in the above passage, appears to claim that evidence of evolution is not to be found in the fossil record. This is a commonly held misunderstanding among ID theorists. While claiming that the fossil record shows no evidence for evolution, they also reveal a major misunderstanding of the way paleontology works.
Other discussions of the fossil record by ID theorists are just as telling. The Design movement, as championed by the Discovery Institute, seems to thoroughly prefer the idea that there are gaps in the fossil record that nullify the fossil record to the idea that most paleontologists hold (the fossil record supports evolution). This is strongly evidenced in the writings of Robert C. Koons in Dembski 2004:
As is well known, the fossil record of the family tree of evolution is so gappy that it consists of a great deal more gap than tree…[Dembski here attests to problems in the invertebrate fossil record]…The missing links that have been found, like the Archaeopteryx or Australopithecus, are better described as mosaics: recombinations of adaptations found in what are assumed to be related families. (Koons in Dembski 2004 p.4)
This blog deals with evolutionary evidences present in vertebrates. The organisms involved are much more well-known to the public than invertebrates are, so it makes sense to consider vertebrates here. Invertebrates will be considered later in these blogs. While Archaeopteryx is called a "mosaic" by Koons, as well as by other Design theorists, it is worth noting that this "mosaic" showcases exactly what one would expect in a transitional form. This idea will be discussed below.
Archaeopteryx
Let us consider the case of Archaeopteryx. While heralded as a perfect transitional form by paleontologists and biologists for more than a century (Thomas Henry Huxley, "Darwin’s Bulldog", used Archaeopteryx and some bird-like dinosaurs such as Compsagnathus to theorize that birds evolved from dinosaurs. This idea was forgotten for decades after his death until it was revived strongly by Bakker and Ostrom in the late 1960’s), the Creationist movement immediately began to call Archaeopteryx "just" a bird, and not a transitional fossil. Indeed, Duane Gish continues with that line of argument even today.
While the classification of Archaeopteryx as "just" a bird is likely partially a product of the Linnaean system (there is no classification for a transitional form between birds and dinosaurs under the Linnaean system, so it is classified as a bird because it is more bird-like than dinosaur-like), it is still used today as an argument against evolution. Jonathan Wells of the Discovery Institute (the main proponent group of ID theory) is militantly against the classification of Archaeopteryx as a transitional form, as shown in his book Icons of Evolution, Science or Myth?: Why Much of What we Teach About Evolution is Wrong. Wells essentially argues that since Archaeopteryx cannot be shown to be an ancestor of modern birds, it does not qualify as a transitional form.
This shows a major misunderstanding of paleontology research, and the classification of a transitional form. Archaeopteryx is a transitional form because it shows both bird-like (feathers, wings, etc) and dinosaurian (teeth, bony tail, etc) features. In fact, until the first feathered specimen of Archaeopteryx was found, the known specimens of Archaeopteryx were instead classified as specimens of the genus Compsagnathus, which was a small bipedal Theropod dinosaur.
However, as conclusive as the evidence in favor of Archaeopteryx being a transitional form is, other ID theorists also misunderstand the basis on which Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form. This list includes lawyer Phillip Johnson, who is often credited with beginning the ID movement. While Johnson may be brilliant as a lawyer, he is not qualified to discuss paleontology, as shown by the following passage:
"Archaeopteryx is an impressive mosaic. The question is whether it is proof of a reptile (dinosaur) to bird transition, or whether it is just one of those odd variants, like the contemporary duck-billed platypus, that have features resembling those of another class but are not transitional intermediates in the Darwinian sense. "(Johnson 1993 p. 80)
This passage shows a major misunderstanding as to why Archaeopteryx is considered to be a "transitional intermediate in the Darwinian sense". Archaeopteryx is not considered to show dinosaurian paternity for the avian class merely because it has a few dinosaur-like features. Rather, the fact that the skeleton of Archaeopteryx is similar enough to the Theropod body plan to be mistaken as a small Theropod (Compsagnathus) until feathered specimens were found is why Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form. The hips, teeth, claws, shoulders, and skeleton as a whole of Archaeopteryx is essentially dinosaurian. This is why Archaeopteryx is classified as a transitional form, not because of some minor similarities, but rather due to major irrefutable physical similarities between birds and dinosaurs shown in Archaeopteryx. See the National Center for Science Education article cited for an in-depth explanation of Wells’ claims on Archaeopteryx and also the rest of his book.
Dinosaur transitional phases
It is worth noting at this point, while both some ID theorists and also the YEC movement claim that macroevolution is not visible through the fossil record, it is perhaps most visible through some dinosaurian lineages. See for example Ceratopsian dinosaurs. The beautiful thing about the Ceratopsian dinosaurs is the fact that within this group there is present both macroevolution and microevolution, and evidence of both is present. For microevolution, just look at the sacrums of the lineage. It soon becomes obvious that this lineage showcases a trend towards robustness as the Ceratopsians evolve from a bipedal ancestral stock (Psittacosaurus) into a hefty quadruped (Triceratops). The change in habit from biped to quadruped, as well as the appearance of horns through the lineage, seemingly out of nowhere, is proof of macroevolution, and also proof that evolution can indeed "create" information. First, in Protoceratops paleontologists see the appearance of a frill, then in later ceratopsians paleontologists can watch (metaphorically speaking; they use fossils) horns form from regions where no horns were initially present in ancestral forms. Here we have a beautiful example of macroevolution and microevolution working in conjunction in order to form new structures and body plans.
Also worth noting is the fact that not only does Archaeopteryx show us a dinosaurian ancestry for the birds, but also that there are other feathered dinosaurs that show evidence of close relation to birds. These animals include Sinosauropteryx and Caudipteryx, both from China.
Tetrapod/early Amphibian evolution
Other transitional sequences are also present, and often ignored by ID theorists. The most commonly ignored transitional sequence is perhaps the evolution of early amphibians from Crossopterygian fish. With the recent discovery of Tiktaalik rosea, we now have an absolutely beautiful transitional sequence documenting early tetrapod evolution (see for example Shubin p. 82-91 in Brockman 2006). However, a brief survey of some of the major ID works shows yet another misunderstanding of the fossil record in reference to this transitional sequence.
First, let us again consider the 1989 edition of Pandas:
"Evolutionists believe that the first amphibians (the labyrinthodonts[italics in original]) evolved from early fish known as crossopterygians or lobe-fined fish. A very similar lobe-finned fish swims the (sic) Indian Ocean today…[brief reference to figure in book here]…If crossoperygians really did evolve into amphibians, tremendous changes must have taken place. Fins must have been transformed into forelimbs. The skull had to change from two parts to a single, solid piece. The hip bones had to enlarge and become attached to the backbone. As well as changes in the skeleton, not a few changes must have occurred in organs, muscles, and other soft tissues. For example, the air bladder of the fish had to be transformed into the lungs of the amphibian.
Though just a few of the many examples possible, these are enough to show how large the differences between early fish and amphibian really were. How many different transitional species were required to bridge the gap between them? And how many generations of each species must have been involved? Were hundreds or even thousands of species required? We have no way of knowing, but we do know that no such species are found in the fossil record." (Davis and Kenyon 1989 p. 102)
It is worth noting here that even at the time this edition of Pandas was published, there were known transitional fossils bridging the gaps noted here (also please refer to Shubin’s article in Brockman 2006, Icthyostega and tetrapod-like fish were present in the fossil record, and had been discovered. Tiktaalik only filled in yet another gap within that lineage, effectively adding even stronger support to its validity). With the edition of Tiktaalik rosea to this lineage, there is no doubt that we do indeed have a transitional line leading from fish to amphibians and tetrapods as a whole.
Whales
When confronted with the problem of the whale transitional series in The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and Intelligent Design, Jonathan Wells does accept the presence of the whale transitional lineage. However, he attempts to make their presence irrelevant by essentially claiming that since they did not "give birth to the other" that they do not count, and also by stating the following:
"It turns out that the problem with fossils is not that transitional links are missing, but that the fossil evidence in principle cannot provide evidence for descent with modification" (Wells 2006 p. 20)
However, ask almost any paleontologist and you will find out that the fossil record does, by nature, prove evolutionary theory. This passage by Wells shows a complete and total misunderstanding with regards to the fossil record. For a good discussion of the whale transitional fossils we have, check out the article "Hooking Leviathan by its Past" in Gould 1995.
Humans
The human transitional sequence is perhaps the most hotly debated transitional series known. This is perhaps due to the fact that this exact lineage directly involves our species as a whole. While many ID theorists (and all YEC theorists) deny the existence of human transitional fossils, the evidence is indeed there in favor of evolution for those who look. Since this is not my area of expertise, see for example Ch. 3 (p. 60-89) in Eldredge 1991 for both detailed yet accessible descriptions and also images, and also Tim D White’s article in Brockman 2006. For internet sources, check out the following:
http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/transitional_fossils/ note that Design advocates will not call themselves creationists and make a distinction between themselves and creation science there.
www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CC/CC200.html
another decent site. google searches will bring up a whole list of human transitional forms.
Conclusion
A brief foray into the field of vertebrate paleontology shows that the fossil record does indeed support evolutionary theory. While there is no time for more discussion in this blog, the fossil record will serve as an underlying theme of all the blogs presented in this series. As shown, many Design theorists tend to support the idea that there are gaps in the fossil record that somehow serve to disprove evolution. While some ID theorists, like Michael Behe, are open to macroevolution and accept the fossil record for what it is, most seem to misunderstand the nature of the fossil record. This is either due to a lack of expertise or a preconceived notion that for their theory to succeed fossils must be ignored. This works in conjunction with one of the Wedge Document’s major goals, namely, to "Replace materialistic explanations with the theistic understanding that nature and human beings are created by God" (Discovery Institute. "The "Wedge Document": "So What?""). This statement in itself shows why exactly Discovery Institute’s science agenda (and therefore, Intelligent Design as a "science") is flawed. Science does not allow appeals to the supernatural, and the Discovery Institute’s Center for Science and Culture expects science to eventually allow these appeals. However, science will stand its ground, and the fossil record will continue to do what it has for the past 150 years; show strong evidence of evolution itself.
Luckily for Darwin, however, the fossil record does support evolution. And unluckily for the Discover Institute, as shown by history, appeals to the supernatural are a science-stopper, and support the mindset of "God did it, no need to understand why". This is the fatal flaw of the Discovery Institute’s Wedge strategy. Science, by nature, excludes the supernatural, and will continue to do so, even if Discovery Institute plans otherwise. Read the Wedge Document (printed in Humes 2007 p. 356-7, and also the Discovery Institute’s "The "Wedge Document": "So What?"") in order to understand exactly what the "Wedge Strategy" is. It will be discussed throughout these blogs.
Works Cited
Brockman, J. Intelligent Thought: Science Versus the Intelligent Design Movement. Vintage Books. NY 2006. Trial transcript in Appendix, also Neil Shubin article p. 82-91.
Davis, P., and Kenyon, DH. Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins. Haughton Publishing Company, Dallas, 1989. The "Intelligent Design" textbook supplement for biology curriculums
Dembski, W. Uncommon Dissent: Intellectuals Who Find Darwinism Unconvincing. ISI Books, Wilmington. 2004 a volume collecting writings of some of the more prominent Design theorists.
Discovery Institute. "The "Wedge Document": "So What?"". Available on www.discovery.org. this article is the Discovery Institute’s attempt to explain away the Wedge Document, and includes text of the actual document.
Eldredge, N., Fossils: The Evolution and Extinction of Species. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., NY, 1991. One of the best general guides to fossils and evolutionary theory ever published in my opinion. Outstanding images of fossils from the American Museum of Natural History accent a beautifully written book.
Gould, SJ. Dinosaur in a Haystack Three Rivers Press, NY, 1995. Article "Hooking Leviathan by its Past" on whale transitional forms present in this work
Humes, E. Monkey Girl: Evolution, Education, Religion, and the Battle for America’s Soul. HarperCollins NY, 2007. First Edition. Discussion of the recent Dover trial.
Johnson, PE. Darwin on Trial. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1993. One of the books credited with kicking off the Intelligent Design movement.
National Center for Science Education. "Icons of Evolution? Why Much of What Jonathan Wells Writes About Evolution is Wrong". www.natcenscied.org/icons.html
this page explains nicely the errors in reasoning of Well’s book Icons of Evolution.
Shermer, M. Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design. Times Books, NY, 2006. A stinging rebuttal of Intelligent Design that shows its inherent existence outside the realm of science
Wells, J. The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Regnery Publishing, Inc, Washington DC, 2006. a guide to intelligent design published by Discovery Institute. Read with caution; the work is massively biased.
Wells, J. Icons of Evolution, Science or Myth?: Why Much of What we Teach About Evolution is Wrong. Regnery Publishing, Inc, Washington DC, 2000. Wells’ first major work attempting to disprove some evidence for evolution presented in classrooms.
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